Having covered the basics of using Postgres SQL to access your data, we will now discuss those features of Postgres that distinguish it from conventional data managers. These features include inheritance, time travel and non-atomic data values (array- and set-valued attributes). Examples in this section can also be found in advance.sql in the tutorial directory. (Refer to for how to use it.) Let's create two classes. The capitals class contains state capitals which are also cities. Naturally, the capitals class should inherit from cities. CREATE TABLE cities ( name text, population float, altitude int -- (in ft) ); CREATE TABLE capitals ( state char(2) ) UNDER cities; In this case, an instance of capitals inherits all attributes (name, population, and altitude) from its parent, cities. The type of the attribute name is text, a native Postgres type for variable length ASCII strings. The type of the attribute population is float, a native Postgres type for double precision floating point numbers. State capitals have an extra attribute, state, that shows their state. In Postgres, a class can inherit from zero or more other classes, and a query can reference either all instances of a class or all instances of a class plus all of its descendants. The inheritance hierarchy is a directed acyclic graph. For example, the following query finds the names of all cities, including state capitals, that are located at an altitude over 500ft, the query is: SELECT c.name, c.altitude FROM cities c WHERE c.altitude > 500; which returns: +----------+----------+ |name | altitude | +----------+----------+ |Las Vegas | 2174 | +----------+----------+ |Mariposa | 1953 | +----------+----------+ |Madison | 845 | +----------+----------+ On the other hand, the following query finds all the cities, but not capital cities that are situated at an attitude of 500ft or higher: SELECT name, altitude FROM ONLY cities WHERE altitude > 500; +----------+----------+ |name | altitude | +----------+----------+ |Las Vegas | 2174 | +----------+----------+ |Mariposa | 1953 | +----------+----------+ Here the ONLY before cities indicates that the query should be run over only cities and not classes below cities in the inheritance hierarchy. Many of the commands that we have already discussed -- SELECT, UPDATE and DELETE -- support this ONLY notation. In previous versions of Postgres, the default was not to get access to child tables. This was found to be error prone and is also in violation of SQL. Under the old syntax, to get the sub-classes you append "*" to the table name. For example SELECT * from cities*; To get the old behavior, the set configuration option SQL_Inheritance to off, e.g., SET SQL_Inheritance TO OFF; or add a line in your postgresql.conf file. One of the tenets of the relational model is that the attributes of a relation are atomic. Postgres does not have this restriction; attributes can themselves contain sub-values that can be accessed from the query language. For example, you can create attributes that are arrays of base types. Postgres allows attributes of an instance to be defined as fixed-length or variable-length multi-dimensional arrays. Arrays of any base type or user-defined type can be created. To illustrate their use, we first create a class with arrays of base types. CREATE TABLE SAL_EMP ( name text, pay_by_quarter int4[], schedule text[][] ); The above query will create a class named SAL_EMP with a text string (name), a one-dimensional array of int4 (pay_by_quarter), which represents the employee's salary by quarter and a two-dimensional array of text (schedule), which represents the employee's weekly schedule. Now we do some INSERTSs; note that when appending to an array, we enclose the values within braces and separate them by commas. If you know C, this is not unlike the syntax for initializing structures. INSERT INTO SAL_EMP VALUES ('Bill', '{10000, 10000, 10000, 10000}', '{{"meeting", "lunch"}, {}}'); INSERT INTO SAL_EMP VALUES ('Carol', '{20000, 25000, 25000, 25000}', '{{"talk", "consult"}, {"meeting"}}'); By default, Postgres uses the "one-based" numbering convention for arrays -- that is, an array of n elements starts with array[1] and ends with array[n]. Now, we can run some queries on SAL_EMP. First, we show how to access a single element of an array at a time. This query retrieves the names of the employees whose pay changed in the second quarter: SELECT name FROM SAL_EMP WHERE SAL_EMP.pay_by_quarter[1] <> SAL_EMP.pay_by_quarter[2]; +------+ |name | +------+ |Carol | +------+ This query retrieves the third quarter pay of all employees: SELECT SAL_EMP.pay_by_quarter[3] FROM SAL_EMP; +---------------+ |pay_by_quarter | +---------------+ |10000 | +---------------+ |25000 | +---------------+ We can also access arbitrary slices of an array, or subarrays. This query retrieves the first item on Bill's schedule for the first two days of the week. SELECT SAL_EMP.schedule[1:2][1:1] FROM SAL_EMP WHERE SAL_EMP.name = 'Bill'; +-------------------+ |schedule | +-------------------+ |{{"meeting"},{""}} | +-------------------+ Postgres has many features not touched upon in this tutorial introduction, which has been oriented toward newer users of SQL. These are discussed in more detail in both the User's and Programmer's Guides.