syntax SQL This chapter describes the syntax of SQL. It forms the foundation for understanding the following chapters which will go into detail about how the SQL commands are applied to define and modify data. We also advise users who are already familiar with SQL to read this chapter carefully because there are several rules and concepts that are implemented inconsistently among SQL databases or that are specific to PostgreSQL. token SQL input consists of a sequence of commands. A command is composed of a sequence of tokens, terminated by a semicolon (;). The end of the input stream also terminates a command. Which tokens are valid depends on the syntax of the particular command. A token can be a key word, an identifier, a quoted identifier, a literal (or constant), or a special character symbol. Tokens are normally separated by whitespace (space, tab, newline), but need not be if there is no ambiguity (which is generally only the case if a special character is adjacent to some other token type). Additionally, comments can occur in SQL input. They are not tokens, they are effectively equivalent to whitespace. For example, the following is (syntactically) valid SQL input: SELECT * FROM MY_TABLE; UPDATE MY_TABLE SET A = 5; INSERT INTO MY_TABLE VALUES (3, 'hi there'); This is a sequence of three commands, one per line (although this is not required; more than one command can be on a line, and commands can usefully be split across lines). The SQL syntax is not very consistent regarding what tokens identify commands and which are operands or parameters. The first few tokens are generally the command name, so in the above example we would usually speak of a SELECT, an UPDATE, and an INSERT command. But for instance the UPDATE command always requires a SET token to appear in a certain position, and this particular variation of INSERT also requires a VALUES in order to be complete. The precise syntax rules for each command are described in . identifier syntax of name syntax of key word syntax of Tokens such as SELECT, UPDATE, or VALUES in the example above are examples of key words, that is, words that have a fixed meaning in the SQL language. The tokens MY_TABLE and A are examples of identifiers. They identify names of tables, columns, or other database objects, depending on the command they are used in. Therefore they are sometimes simply called names. Key words and identifiers have the same lexical structure, meaning that one cannot know whether a token is an identifier or a key word without knowing the language. A complete list of key words can be found in . SQL identifiers and key words must begin with a letter (a-z, but also letters with diacritical marks and non-Latin letters) or an underscore (_). Subsequent characters in an identifier or key word can be letters, underscores, digits (0-9), or dollar signs ($). Note that dollar signs are not allowed in identifiers according to the letter of the SQL standard, so their use might render applications less portable. The SQL standard will not define a key word that contains digits or starts or ends with an underscore, so identifiers of this form are safe against possible conflict with future extensions of the standard. identifierlength The system uses no more than NAMEDATALEN-1 bytes of an identifier; longer names can be written in commands, but they will be truncated. By default, NAMEDATALEN is 64 so the maximum identifier length is 63 bytes. If this limit is problematic, it can be raised by changing the NAMEDATALEN constant in src/include/pg_config_manual.h. case sensitivity of SQL commands Identifier and key word names are case insensitive. Therefore: UPDATE MY_TABLE SET A = 5; can equivalently be written as: uPDaTE my_TabLE SeT a = 5; A convention often used is to write key words in upper case and names in lower case, e.g.: UPDATE my_table SET a = 5; quotation marks and identifiers There is a second kind of identifier: the delimited identifier or quoted identifier. It is formed by enclosing an arbitrary sequence of characters in double-quotes ("). A delimited identifier is always an identifier, never a key word. So "select" could be used to refer to a column or table named select, whereas an unquoted select would be taken as a key word and would therefore provoke a parse error when used where a table or column name is expected. The example can be written with quoted identifiers like this: UPDATE "my_table" SET "a" = 5; Quoted identifiers can contain any character, except the character with code zero. (To include a double quote, write two double quotes.) This allows constructing table or column names that would otherwise not be possible, such as ones containing spaces or ampersands. The length limitation still applies. Quoting an identifier also makes it case-sensitive, whereas unquoted names are always folded to lower case. For example, the identifiers FOO, foo, and "foo" are considered the same by PostgreSQL, but "Foo" and "FOO" are different from these three and each other. (The folding of unquoted names to lower case in PostgreSQL is incompatible with the SQL standard, which says that unquoted names should be folded to upper case. Thus, foo should be equivalent to "FOO" not "foo" according to the standard. If you want to write portable applications you are advised to always quote a particular name or never quote it.) constant There are three kinds of implicitly-typed constants in PostgreSQL: strings, bit strings, and numbers. Constants can also be specified with explicit types, which can enable more accurate representation and more efficient handling by the system. These alternatives are discussed in the following subsections. character string constant quotation marks escaping A string constant in SQL is an arbitrary sequence of characters bounded by single quotes ('), for example 'This is a string'. To include a single-quote character within a string constant, write two adjacent single quotes, e.g. 'Dianne''s horse'. Note that this is not the same as a double-quote character ("). Two string constants that are only separated by whitespace with at least one newline are concatenated and effectively treated as if the string had been written as one constant. For example: SELECT 'foo' 'bar'; is equivalent to: SELECT 'foobar'; but: SELECT 'foo' 'bar'; is not valid syntax. (This slightly bizarre behavior is specified by SQL; PostgreSQL is following the standard.) escape string syntax backslash escapes PostgreSQL also accepts escape string constants, which are an extension to the SQL standard. An escape string constant is specified by writing the letter E (upper or lower case) just before the opening single quote, e.g. E'foo'. (When continuing an escape string constant across lines, write E only before the first opening quote.) Within an escape string, a backslash character (\) begins a C-like backslash escape sequence, in which the combination of backslash and following character(s) represents a special byte value. \b is a backspace, \f is a form feed, \n is a newline, \r is a carriage return, \t is a tab. Also supported are \digits, where digits represents an octal byte value, and \xhexdigits, where hexdigits represents a hexadecimal byte value. (It is your responsibility that the byte sequences you create are valid characters in the server character set encoding.) Any other character following a backslash is taken literally. Thus, to include a backslash character, write two backslashes (\\). Also, a single quote can be included in an escape string by writing \', in addition to the normal way of ''. If the configuration parameter is off, then PostgreSQL recognizes backslash escapes in both regular and escape string constants. This is for backward compatibility with the historical behavior, in which backslash escapes were always recognized. Although standard_conforming_strings currently defaults to off, the default will change to on in a future release for improved standards compliance. Applications are therefore encouraged to migrate away from using backslash escapes. If you need to use a backslash escape to represent a special character, write the constant with an E to be sure it will be handled the same way in future releases. In addition to standard_conforming_strings, the configuration parameters and govern treatment of backslashes in string constants. The character with the code zero cannot be in a string constant. dollar quoting While the standard syntax for specifying string constants is usually convenient, it can be difficult to understand when the desired string contains many single quotes or backslashes, since each of those must be doubled. To allow more readable queries in such situations, PostgreSQL provides another way, called dollar quoting, to write string constants. A dollar-quoted string constant consists of a dollar sign ($), an optional tag of zero or more characters, another dollar sign, an arbitrary sequence of characters that makes up the string content, a dollar sign, the same tag that began this dollar quote, and a dollar sign. For example, here are two different ways to specify the string Dianne's horse using dollar quoting: $$Dianne's horse$$ $SomeTag$Dianne's horse$SomeTag$ Notice that inside the dollar-quoted string, single quotes can be used without needing to be escaped. Indeed, no characters inside a dollar-quoted string are ever escaped: the string content is always written literally. Backslashes are not special, and neither are dollar signs, unless they are part of a sequence matching the opening tag. It is possible to nest dollar-quoted string constants by choosing different tags at each nesting level. This is most commonly used in writing function definitions. For example: $function$ BEGIN RETURN ($1 ~ $q$[\t\r\n\v\\]$q$); END; $function$ Here, the sequence $q$[\t\r\n\v\\]$q$ represents a dollar-quoted literal string [\t\r\n\v\\], which will be recognized when the function body is executed by PostgreSQL. But since the sequence does not match the outer dollar quoting delimiter $function$, it is just some more characters within the constant so far as the outer string is concerned. The tag, if any, of a dollar-quoted string follows the same rules as an unquoted identifier, except that it cannot contain a dollar sign. Tags are case sensitive, so $tag$String content$tag$ is correct, but $TAG$String content$tag$ is not. A dollar-quoted string that follows a keyword or identifier must be separated from it by whitespace; otherwise the dollar quoting delimiter would be taken as part of the preceding identifier. Dollar quoting is not part of the SQL standard, but it is often a more convenient way to write complicated string literals than the standard-compliant single quote syntax. It is particularly useful when representing string constants inside other constants, as is often needed in procedural function definitions. With single-quote syntax, each backslash in the above example would have to be written as four backslashes, which would be reduced to two backslashes in parsing the original string constant, and then to one when the inner string constant is re-parsed during function execution. bit string constant Bit-string constants look like regular string constants with a B (upper or lower case) immediately before the opening quote (no intervening whitespace), e.g., B'1001'. The only characters allowed within bit-string constants are 0 and 1. Alternatively, bit-string constants can be specified in hexadecimal notation, using a leading X (upper or lower case), e.g., X'1FF'. This notation is equivalent to a bit-string constant with four binary digits for each hexadecimal digit. Both forms of bit-string constant can be continued across lines in the same way as regular string constants. Dollar quoting cannot be used in a bit-string constant. number constant Numeric constants are accepted in these general forms: digits digits.digitse+-digits digits.digitse+-digits digitse+-digits where digits is one or more decimal digits (0 through 9). At least one digit must be before or after the decimal point, if one is used. At least one digit must follow the exponent marker (e), if one is present. There cannot be any spaces or other characters embedded in the constant. Note that any leading plus or minus sign is not actually considered part of the constant; it is an operator applied to the constant. These are some examples of valid numeric constants: 42 3.5 4. .001 5e2 1.925e-3 integer bigint numeric A numeric constant that contains neither a decimal point nor an exponent is initially presumed to be type integer if its value fits in type integer (32 bits); otherwise it is presumed to be type bigint if its value fits in type bigint (64 bits); otherwise it is taken to be type numeric. Constants that contain decimal points and/or exponents are always initially presumed to be type numeric. The initially assigned data type of a numeric constant is just a starting point for the type resolution algorithms. In most cases the constant will be automatically coerced to the most appropriate type depending on context. When necessary, you can force a numeric value to be interpreted as a specific data type by casting it.type cast For example, you can force a numeric value to be treated as type real (float4) by writing: REAL '1.23' -- string style 1.23::REAL -- PostgreSQL (historical) style These are actually just special cases of the general casting notations discussed next. data type constant A constant of an arbitrary type can be entered using any one of the following notations: type 'string' 'string'::type CAST ( 'string' AS type ) The string constant's text is passed to the input conversion routine for the type called type. The result is a constant of the indicated type. The explicit type cast can be omitted if there is no ambiguity as to the type the constant must be (for example, when it is assigned directly to a table column), in which case it is automatically coerced. The string constant can be written using either regular SQL notation or dollar-quoting. It is also possible to specify a type coercion using a function-like syntax: typename ( 'string' ) but not all type names can be used in this way; see for details. The ::, CAST(), and function-call syntaxes can also be used to specify run-time type conversions of arbitrary expressions, as discussed in . To avoid syntactic ambiguity, the type 'string' syntax can only be used to specify the type of a simple literal constant. Another restriction on the type 'string' syntax is that it does not work for array types; use :: or CAST() to specify the type of an array constant. The CAST() syntax conforms to SQL. The type 'string' syntax is a generalization of the standard: SQL specifies this syntax only for a few data types, but PostgreSQL allows it for all types. The syntax with :: is historical PostgreSQL usage, as is the function-call syntax. operator syntax An operator name is a sequence of up to NAMEDATALEN-1 (63 by default) characters from the following list: + - * / < > = ~ ! @ # % ^ & | ` ? There are a few restrictions on operator names, however: -- and /* cannot appear anywhere in an operator name, since they will be taken as the start of a comment. A multiple-character operator name cannot end in + or -, unless the name also contains at least one of these characters: ~ ! @ # % ^ & | ` ? For example, @- is an allowed operator name, but *- is not. This restriction allows PostgreSQL to parse SQL-compliant queries without requiring spaces between tokens. When working with non-SQL-standard operator names, you will usually need to separate adjacent operators with spaces to avoid ambiguity. For example, if you have defined a left unary operator named @, you cannot write X*@Y; you must write X* @Y to ensure that PostgreSQL reads it as two operator names not one. Some characters that are not alphanumeric have a special meaning that is different from being an operator. Details on the usage can be found at the location where the respective syntax element is described. This section only exists to advise the existence and summarize the purposes of these characters. A dollar sign ($) followed by digits is used to represent a positional parameter in the body of a function definition or a prepared statement. In other contexts the dollar sign can be part of an identifier or a dollar-quoted string constant. Parentheses (()) have their usual meaning to group expressions and enforce precedence. In some cases parentheses are required as part of the fixed syntax of a particular SQL command. Brackets ([]) are used to select the elements of an array. See for more information on arrays. Commas (,) are used in some syntactical constructs to separate the elements of a list. The semicolon (;) terminates an SQL command. It cannot appear anywhere within a command, except within a string constant or quoted identifier. The colon (:) is used to select slices from arrays. (See .) In certain SQL dialects (such as Embedded SQL), the colon is used to prefix variable names. The asterisk (*) is used in some contexts to denote all the fields of a table row or composite value. It also has a special meaning when used as the argument of an aggregate function, namely that the aggregate does not require any explicit parameter. The period (.) is used in numeric constants, and to separate schema, table, and column names. comment in SQL A comment is an arbitrary sequence of characters beginning with double dashes and extending to the end of the line, e.g.: -- This is a standard SQL comment Alternatively, C-style block comments can be used: /* multiline comment * with nesting: /* nested block comment */ */ where the comment begins with /* and extends to the matching occurrence of */. These block comments nest, as specified in the SQL standard but unlike C, so that one can comment out larger blocks of code that might contain existing block comments. A comment is removed from the input stream before further syntax analysis and is effectively replaced by whitespace. operator precedence shows the precedence and associativity of the operators in PostgreSQL. Most operators have the same precedence and are left-associative. The precedence and associativity of the operators is hard-wired into the parser. This can lead to non-intuitive behavior; for example the Boolean operators < and > have a different precedence than the Boolean operators <= and >=. Also, you will sometimes need to add parentheses when using combinations of binary and unary operators. For instance: SELECT 5 ! - 6; will be parsed as: SELECT 5 ! (- 6); because the parser has no idea — until it is too late — that ! is defined as a postfix operator, not an infix one. To get the desired behavior in this case, you must write: SELECT (5 !) - 6; This is the price one pays for extensibility. Operator/Element Associativity Description . left table/column name separator :: left PostgreSQL-style typecast [ ] left array element selection - right unary minus ^ left exponentiation * / % left multiplication, division, modulo + - left addition, subtraction IS IS TRUE, IS FALSE, IS UNKNOWN, IS NULL ISNULL test for null NOTNULL test for not null (any other) left all other native and user-defined operators IN set membership BETWEEN range containment OVERLAPS time interval overlap LIKE ILIKE SIMILAR string pattern matching < > less than, greater than = right equality, assignment NOT right logical negation AND left logical conjunction OR left logical disjunction Note that the operator precedence rules also apply to user-defined operators that have the same names as the built-in operators mentioned above. For example, if you define a + operator for some custom data type it will have the same precedence as the built-in + operator, no matter what yours does. When a schema-qualified operator name is used in the OPERATOR syntax, as for example in: SELECT 3 OPERATOR(pg_catalog.+) 4; the OPERATOR construct is taken to have the default precedence shown in for any other operator. This is true no matter which specific operator name appears inside OPERATOR(). expression syntax value expression scalar expression Value expressions are used in a variety of contexts, such as in the target list of the SELECT command, as new column values in INSERT or UPDATE, or in search conditions in a number of commands. The result of a value expression is sometimes called a scalar, to distinguish it from the result of a table expression (which is a table). Value expressions are therefore also called scalar expressions (or even simply expressions). The expression syntax allows the calculation of values from primitive parts using arithmetic, logical, set, and other operations. A value expression is one of the following: A constant or literal value. A column reference. A positional parameter reference, in the body of a function definition or prepared statement. A subscripted expression. A field selection expression. An operator invocation. A function call. An aggregate expression. A type cast. A scalar subquery. An array constructor. A row constructor. Another value expression in parentheses, useful to group subexpressions and override precedence.parenthesis In addition to this list, there are a number of constructs that can be classified as an expression but do not follow any general syntax rules. These generally have the semantics of a function or operator and are explained in the appropriate location in . An example is the IS NULL clause. We have already discussed constants in . The following sections discuss the remaining options. column reference A column can be referenced in the form correlation.columnname correlation is the name of a table (possibly qualified with a schema name), or an alias for a table defined by means of a FROM clause, or one of the key words NEW or OLD. (NEW and OLD can only appear in rewrite rules, while other correlation names can be used in any SQL statement.) The correlation name and separating dot can be omitted if the column name is unique across all the tables being used in the current query. (See also .) parameter syntax $ A positional parameter reference is used to indicate a value that is supplied externally to an SQL statement. Parameters are used in SQL function definitions and in prepared queries. Some client libraries also support specifying data values separately from the SQL command string, in which case parameters are used to refer to the out-of-line data values. The form of a parameter reference is: $number For example, consider the definition of a function, dept, as: CREATE FUNCTION dept(text) RETURNS dept AS $$ SELECT * FROM dept WHERE name = $1 $$ LANGUAGE SQL; Here the $1 references the value of the first function argument whenever the function is invoked. subscript If an expression yields a value of an array type, then a specific element of the array value can be extracted by writing expression[subscript] or multiple adjacent elements (an array slice) can be extracted by writing expression[lower_subscript:upper_subscript] (Here, the brackets [ ] are meant to appear literally.) Each subscript is itself an expression, which must yield an integer value. In general the array expression must be parenthesized, but the parentheses can be omitted when the expression to be subscripted is just a column reference or positional parameter. Also, multiple subscripts can be concatenated when the original array is multidimensional. For example: mytable.arraycolumn[4] mytable.two_d_column[17][34] $1[10:42] (arrayfunction(a,b))[42] The parentheses in the last example are required. See for more about arrays. field selection If an expression yields a value of a composite type (row type), then a specific field of the row can be extracted by writing expression.fieldname In general the row expression must be parenthesized, but the parentheses can be omitted when the expression to be selected from is just a table reference or positional parameter. For example: mytable.mycolumn $1.somecolumn (rowfunction(a,b)).col3 (Thus, a qualified column reference is actually just a special case of the field selection syntax.) operator invocation There are three possible syntaxes for an operator invocation: expression operator expression (binary infix operator) operator expression (unary prefix operator) expression operator (unary postfix operator) where the operator token follows the syntax rules of , or is one of the key words AND, OR, and NOT, or is a qualified operator name in the form OPERATOR(schema.operatorname) Which particular operators exist and whether they are unary or binary depends on what operators have been defined by the system or the user. describes the built-in operators. function invocation The syntax for a function call is the name of a function (possibly qualified with a schema name), followed by its argument list enclosed in parentheses: function (expression , expression ... ) For example, the following computes the square root of 2: sqrt(2) The list of built-in functions is in . Other functions can be added by the user. aggregate function invocation An aggregate expression represents the application of an aggregate function across the rows selected by a query. An aggregate function reduces multiple inputs to a single output value, such as the sum or average of the inputs. The syntax of an aggregate expression is one of the following: aggregate_name (expression [ , ... ] ) aggregate_name (ALL expression [ , ... ] ) aggregate_name (DISTINCT expression [ , ... ] ) aggregate_name ( * ) where aggregate_name is a previously defined aggregate (possibly qualified with a schema name), and expression is any value expression that does not itself contain an aggregate expression. The first form of aggregate expression invokes the aggregate across all input rows for which the given expression(s) yield non-null values. (Actually, it is up to the aggregate function whether to ignore null values or not — but all the standard ones do.) The second form is the same as the first, since ALL is the default. The third form invokes the aggregate for all distinct non-null values of the expressions found in the input rows. The last form invokes the aggregate once for each input row regardless of null or non-null values; since no particular input value is specified, it is generally only useful for the count(*) aggregate function. For example, count(*) yields the total number of input rows; count(f1) yields the number of input rows in which f1 is non-null; count(distinct f1) yields the number of distinct non-null values of f1. The predefined aggregate functions are described in . Other aggregate functions can be added by the user. An aggregate expression can only appear in the result list or HAVING clause of a SELECT command. It is forbidden in other clauses, such as WHERE, because those clauses are logically evaluated before the results of aggregates are formed. When an aggregate expression appears in a subquery (see and ), the aggregate is normally evaluated over the rows of the subquery. But an exception occurs if the aggregate's arguments contain only outer-level variables: the aggregate then belongs to the nearest such outer level, and is evaluated over the rows of that query. The aggregate expression as a whole is then an outer reference for the subquery it appears in, and acts as a constant over any one evaluation of that subquery. The restriction about appearing only in the result list or HAVING clause applies with respect to the query level that the aggregate belongs to. PostgreSQL currently does not support DISTINCT with more than one input expression. data type type cast type cast A type cast specifies a conversion from one data type to another. PostgreSQL accepts two equivalent syntaxes for type casts: CAST ( expression AS type ) expression::type The CAST syntax conforms to SQL; the syntax with :: is historical PostgreSQL usage. When a cast is applied to a value expression of a known type, it represents a run-time type conversion. The cast will succeed only if a suitable type conversion operation has been defined. Notice that this is subtly different from the use of casts with constants, as shown in . A cast applied to an unadorned string literal represents the initial assignment of a type to a literal constant value, and so it will succeed for any type (if the contents of the string literal are acceptable input syntax for the data type). An explicit type cast can usually be omitted if there is no ambiguity as to the type that a value expression must produce (for example, when it is assigned to a table column); the system will automatically apply a type cast in such cases. However, automatic casting is only done for casts that are marked OK to apply implicitly in the system catalogs. Other casts must be invoked with explicit casting syntax. This restriction is intended to prevent surprising conversions from being applied silently. It is also possible to specify a type cast using a function-like syntax: typename ( expression ) However, this only works for types whose names are also valid as function names. For example, double precision cannot be used this way, but the equivalent float8 can. Also, the names interval, time, and timestamp can only be used in this fashion if they are double-quoted, because of syntactic conflicts. Therefore, the use of the function-like cast syntax leads to inconsistencies and should probably be avoided in new applications. The function-like syntax is in fact just a function call. When one of the two standard cast syntaxes is used to do a run-time conversion, it will internally invoke a registered function to perform the conversion. By convention, these conversion functions have the same name as their output type, and thus the function-like syntax is nothing more than a direct invocation of the underlying conversion function. Obviously, this is not something that a portable application should rely on. For further details see . subquery A scalar subquery is an ordinary SELECT query in parentheses that returns exactly one row with one column. (See for information about writing queries.) The SELECT query is executed and the single returned value is used in the surrounding value expression. It is an error to use a query that returns more than one row or more than one column as a scalar subquery. (But if, during a particular execution, the subquery returns no rows, there is no error; the scalar result is taken to be null.) The subquery can refer to variables from the surrounding query, which will act as constants during any one evaluation of the subquery. See also for other expressions involving subqueries. For example, the following finds the largest city population in each state: SELECT name, (SELECT max(pop) FROM cities WHERE cities.state = states.name) FROM states; array constructor ARRAY An array constructor is an expression that builds an array value from values for its member elements. A simple array constructor consists of the key word ARRAY, a left square bracket [, one or more expressions (separated by commas) for the array element values, and finally a right square bracket ]. For example: SELECT ARRAY[1,2,3+4]; array --------- {1,2,7} (1 row) The array element type is the common type of the member expressions, determined using the same rules as for UNION or CASE constructs (see ). Multidimensional array values can be built by nesting array constructors. In the inner constructors, the key word ARRAY can be omitted. For example, these produce the same result: SELECT ARRAY[ARRAY[1,2], ARRAY[3,4]]; array --------------- {{1,2},{3,4}} (1 row) SELECT ARRAY[[1,2],[3,4]]; array --------------- {{1,2},{3,4}} (1 row) Since multidimensional arrays must be rectangular, inner constructors at the same level must produce sub-arrays of identical dimensions. Multidimensional array constructor elements can be anything yielding an array of the proper kind, not only a sub-ARRAY construct. For example: CREATE TABLE arr(f1 int[], f2 int[]); INSERT INTO arr VALUES (ARRAY[[1,2],[3,4]], ARRAY[[5,6],[7,8]]); SELECT ARRAY[f1, f2, '{{9,10},{11,12}}'::int[]] FROM arr; array ------------------------------------------------ {{{1,2},{3,4}},{{5,6},{7,8}},{{9,10},{11,12}}} (1 row) It is also possible to construct an array from the results of a subquery. In this form, the array constructor is written with the key word ARRAY followed by a parenthesized (not bracketed) subquery. For example: SELECT ARRAY(SELECT oid FROM pg_proc WHERE proname LIKE 'bytea%'); ?column? ------------------------------------------------------------- {2011,1954,1948,1952,1951,1244,1950,2005,1949,1953,2006,31} (1 row) The subquery must return a single column. The resulting one-dimensional array will have an element for each row in the subquery result, with an element type matching that of the subquery's output column. The subscripts of an array value built with ARRAY always begin with one. For more information about arrays, see . composite type constructor row type constructor ROW A row constructor is an expression that builds a row value (also called a composite value) from values for its member fields. A row constructor consists of the key word ROW, a left parenthesis, zero or more expressions (separated by commas) for the row field values, and finally a right parenthesis. For example: SELECT ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test'); The key word ROW is optional when there is more than one expression in the list. A row constructor can include the syntax rowvalue.*, which will be expanded to a list of the elements of the row value, just as occurs when the .* syntax is used at the top level of a SELECT list. For example, if table t has columns f1 and f2, these are the same: SELECT ROW(t.*, 42) FROM t; SELECT ROW(t.f1, t.f2, 42) FROM t; Before PostgreSQL 8.2, the .* syntax was not expanded, so that writing ROW(t.*, 42) created a two-field row whose first field was another row value. The new behavior is usually more useful. If you need the old behavior of nested row values, write the inner row value without .*, for instance ROW(t, 42). By default, the value created by a ROW expression is of an anonymous record type. If necessary, it can be cast to a named composite type — either the row type of a table, or a composite type created with CREATE TYPE AS. An explicit cast might be needed to avoid ambiguity. For example: CREATE TABLE mytable(f1 int, f2 float, f3 text); CREATE FUNCTION getf1(mytable) RETURNS int AS 'SELECT $1.f1' LANGUAGE SQL; -- No cast needed since only one getf1() exists SELECT getf1(ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test')); getf1 ------- 1 (1 row) CREATE TYPE myrowtype AS (f1 int, f2 text, f3 numeric); CREATE FUNCTION getf1(myrowtype) RETURNS int AS 'SELECT $1.f1' LANGUAGE SQL; -- Now we need a cast to indicate which function to call: SELECT getf1(ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test')); ERROR: function getf1(record) is not unique SELECT getf1(ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test')::mytable); getf1 ------- 1 (1 row) SELECT getf1(CAST(ROW(11,'this is a test',2.5) AS myrowtype)); getf1 ------- 11 (1 row) Row constructors can be used to build composite values to be stored in a composite-type table column, or to be passed to a function that accepts a composite parameter. Also, it is possible to compare two row values or test a row with IS NULL or IS NOT NULL, for example: SELECT ROW(1,2.5,'this is a test') = ROW(1, 3, 'not the same'); SELECT ROW(table.*) IS NULL FROM table; -- detect all-null rows For more detail see . Row constructors can also be used in connection with subqueries, as discussed in . expression order of evaluation The order of evaluation of subexpressions is not defined. In particular, the inputs of an operator or function are not necessarily evaluated left-to-right or in any other fixed order. Furthermore, if the result of an expression can be determined by evaluating only some parts of it, then other subexpressions might not be evaluated at all. For instance, if one wrote: SELECT true OR somefunc(); then somefunc() would (probably) not be called at all. The same would be the case if one wrote: SELECT somefunc() OR true; Note that this is not the same as the left-to-right short-circuiting of Boolean operators that is found in some programming languages. As a consequence, it is unwise to use functions with side effects as part of complex expressions. It is particularly dangerous to rely on side effects or evaluation order in WHERE and HAVING clauses, since those clauses are extensively reprocessed as part of developing an execution plan. Boolean expressions (AND/OR/NOT combinations) in those clauses can be reorganized in any manner allowed by the laws of Boolean algebra. When it is essential to force evaluation order, a CASE construct (see ) can be used. For example, this is an untrustworthy way of trying to avoid division by zero in a WHERE clause: SELECT ... WHERE x <> 0 AND y/x > 1.5; But this is safe: SELECT ... WHERE CASE WHEN x <> 0 THEN y/x > 1.5 ELSE false END; A CASE construct used in this fashion will defeat optimization attempts, so it should only be done when necessary. (In this particular example, it would doubtless be best to sidestep the problem by writing y > 1.5*x instead.)